Hepatitis VIRUSES are infectious agents that can infect liver and cause inflammation. The infection triggers immune response against infected cells that leads to the destruction of hepatic cells. This destruction has two consequences: leaking ALT and AST liver enzymes which increases during the course of disease and accumulation of bilirubin- a red pigmented compound released from dead red cells- which causes the yellow coloration of eyes and skin. These VIRUSES transmit through diverse routes i.e. blood transfusion, sexual contacts and consuming water or food contaminated by feces. ENTERIC hepatitis VIRUSES use the latter route for transmission, hence their outbreaks are more common in underdeveloped countries. There are currently two distinguished ENTERIC hepatitis VIRUSES, hepatitis A and hepatitis E. These VIRUSES belong to different family of VIRUSES and their epidemiological characteristics are different. These infections can be diagnosed by an ELISA for IgM antibody. A vaccine has been developed in last decade of twentieth century for hepatitis A virus, which is administered mostly in the developed world i.e. U.S and Japan. Treatment for these infections is mostly supportive; however, in the case of fulminant hepatitis the liver transplantation might be necessary.

There are increasing concerns about zoonotic transmission of some ENTERIC VIRUSES which are closely related to human-pathogenic strains. Therefore, the use of appropriate processing methods to control or eliminate these threats is essential. The aim of this study was to evaluate the survival of pathogenic ENTERIC VIRUSES in baked lamb and chicken, using MS2 enter obacteriophage as surrogate. Pieces of leg chump of lamb and chicken breast, approximately 10×10×1.5 cm3 were inoculated with 101, 103 and 105 of MS2 and the incubated samples were then divided to steak and ground meat. To investigate the effect of baking temperature on MS2, inoculated meat wrapped in aluminum foil and baked for 1 hour at 95 Cº in an oven. The MS2 bacteriophage was enumerated using plaque assay technique. Results showed the significant effect (p£0.05) of baking temperature on all samples. Less reduction of MS2 in ground meat in comparison with steak samples in both lamb and chicken was observed. It is concluded that survival of MS2 in lamb after heat treatment was more than chicken meat.

Shellfishes are significant economic and nutritious seafood amongst people of different countries. Seafood products, particularly shellfish samples, are potential reservoirs of ENTERIC VIRUSES. This research investigated the incidence of RoV, NoV GI and GII, HAV, and HEV in shellfish samples from the Persian Gulf, Iran. One hundred and fifty shellfish samples were collected. RNA extraction and cDNA synthesis was performed using commercial kits. The real-time PCR assessed the presence of ENTERIC VIRUSES in extracted cDNA samples. Thirty-two out of 150 (21.33%) shellfish samples were contaminated with ENTERIC VIRUSES. Prevalence of NoV GI, NoV GII, HAV, and RoV amongst shellfish samples were 8.00%, 11.33%, 1.33%, and 0.66%, respectively. There were no contaminated shellfish samples with HEV. Simultaneous prevalence of HAV and NoV GI and HAV and NoV GII VIRUSES were 0.66% and 0.66%, respectively. Examined VIRUSES had a higher prevalence in shellfish samples collected through the winter season (P < 0.05). Prevalence of HAV, RoV, NoV GI, and NoV GII amongst shellfish samples collected through the winter season was 2.85%, 9.09%, 11.90%, and 20%, respectively. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of the incidence of ENTERIC VIRUSES, particularly HAV, NoV GI, NoV GII, and RoV, in shellfish samples from the Persian Gulf, Iran. Shellfish samples may serve as a potential source of ENTERIC VIRUSES for the human population. Therefore, routine viral assessments should be conducted. Completely cooking shellfish samples before consumption can significantly reduce the risk of HAV, RoV, NoV GI, and NoV GII infections. Furthermore, given the export value and importance of shellfish samples, their microbial quality and safety should be routinely monitored.

Bacteriophage is the phage which causes the microbial host to infect and coliphage is the bacteriophage which in fects Escherichia coli. The presence of coliphage in surface waters is the indication of fecal contamination (ENTERIC VIRUSES). The objective of this study was evaluation of ENTERIC VIRUSES recovery from farmed fish using Male specific coliphage (MS2) as an indicator bacteriophage for ENTERIC VIRUSES due to stable connection to surfaces. MS2 coliphage was used to contaminate farmed Salmon fish in three concentrations (103, 105 and 108 pfu/ml) all around Mashhad city. After phage spiked, Coliphage recovery was evaluated using double agar layer technique from three different parts of Salmon fish (gills, skin flesh and interceptive) according to the best procedure (glycine- threonine- polyethylene glycol). The highest coliphage recovery in the lowest spiked concentration (103pfu/ml) was in skin-flesh of Salmon fish while interceptive of Salmon fish had the highest recovery in 105pfu/ml of spiked concentration.

Viral and bacterial gastroenteritis and diarrhea have long been a problem in livestock with devastating effects on animal health and production causing a heavy financial burden on producers. Therefore, the bead-based multiplex detection assay was created for simultaneous detection of three livestock viral diarrheic agents viz. bovine rotavirus (BRV), bovine coronavirus (BCoV) and bluetongue virus (BTV). The primers and probes for triplex MAGPIX assay for simultaneous detection of three ENTERIC VIRUSES were designed and the assay was optimized for hybridization temperature, primer-probe and bead concentrations. The newly developed MAGPIX assay was used to determine the prevalence of these diarrhea-associated VIRUSES by testing 200 fecal samples collected from Haryana state of India during 2018-2019. The limit of detection of the developed triplex assay was 1 × 105, 1 × 104, and 1 × 105 RNA copies for BRV, BCoV, and BTV, respectively, being lower than the reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR). However, it was higher than the conventional RT-PCR, showing it to be more sensitive. The newly developed MAGPIX assay was a rapid, cost-effective and high throughput diagnostic tool for identification of three major entero-pathogenic diarrhea associated VIRUSES, either alone or in tandem, with the aim to prevent and control viral diarrhea in animals.

2Background and Aim:  There are still risks of contamination of seafood by the common pathogens such as bacteria and VIRUSES, despite significant achievements in the food security and environmental protection in recent years. The aim of this study was to investigate the prevalence of pathogenic VIRUSES linked to the seafood hygiene in the raw seafood samples collected from the seafood retailers in Tehran, Iran. Materials and Methods:  In general, 200 samples (100 fish and 100 shrimps) were collected from the seafood retailers in Tehran, Iran. For the RNA VIRUSES, the RNA was extracted from the samples and subjected to cDNA synthesis and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to amplify the target genes. For the adenovirus, DNA genome was extracted and directly used in PCR. Data were analyzed using the SPSS Statistics 29. 0. 10. Results:  From 100 fish samples, 48, 24, 32, 35, 56 and 55 samples were contaminated with adenovirus, astrovirus, hepatitis A virus, hepatitis E virus, rotavirus and norovirus, respectively. From 100 shrimp samples, 51, 47, 28, 47, 49 and 47 samples were contaminated with adenovirus, astrovirus, hepatitis A virus, hepatitis E virus, rotavirus and norovirus, respectively. Conclusion:  In conclusion, raw seafood can still be a major public health concern. Therefore, it is strongly recommended to use the organized monitoring systems and improved hygiene measurements to decrease the risks of the seafood contaminations and hence foodborne diseases and outbreaks in consumers

ENTERIC VIRUSES are the most common cause of gastroenteritis or infectious diarrhea worldwide. The genera Rotavirus (RoV), astrovirus (AstV), and Norovirus (NoV) are predominant VIRUSES causing acute diarrhea in children and inflammation in the gastrointestinal tract. Apart from the ENTERIC VIRUSES, human papillomavirus (HPV), John Cunningham human polyomavirus (JCV), and human immunodeficiency VIRUSES (HIV) are also significantly linked with gastrointestinal inflammation and gastric neoplasia. Moreover, recent studies demonstrated the direct induction of acute gut inflammation by Norovirus infection. Though mild inflammation occurs with astroviral infection, proinflammatory signaling pathways are also activated. Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), a significant tumor-causing pathogenic gammaherpesvirus, is also associated with diarrheal disease due to increased local and systemic inflammation. The association of EBV infection with ulcer colitis (UD), Crohn's disease (CD), inflammatory bowel syndrome (IBD), peptic ulcers, and chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) indicates its potentiality for enhancing gut inflammation and gastric cancers. In the current scenario, extensive research is a prerequisite to understanding and achieving in-depth knowledge of the molecular mechanisms involved with ENTERIC and tumor viral antigen-induced gut inflammation and cancer progression. This review represents new insights into the current research linking ENTERIC and other pathogenic VIRUSES as a trigger for gut inflammation and gastrointestinal malignancies.

Background: Rotavirus has been considered the main causal agent of gastroenteritis worldwide. However, after rotavirus vaccine implementation, new reports have revealed the prevalence of other viral gastroenteritis agents such as norovirus, adenovirus, astrovirus, and other rare rotaVIRUSES. Their prevalence is increasing in both developed and developing countries and may become a serious public health problem. Objectives: The study aimed to determine the relationship between co-infections with ENTERIC VIRUSES and acute gastroenteritis in hospitalized children under five years of age. Methods: A total of 57 stool samples were collected during 2010-2011 in two hospitals in Chihuahua, Mé xico, located in northern Mexico. The genotypic analysis was done using RT-PCR of specific regions of the viral ENTERIC genome. In addition, phylogenetic analysiswasdeveloped by sequencing of the completegenomecharacteristic for the classification of ENTERIC VIRUSES by the neighborjoining method. Results: Molecular detection revealed the presence of at least one viral agent in 61. 4% (n = 35) of the total analyzed samples. Among the positive samples, rotavirus was identified in 49. 12% (n = 21), adenovirus in 14% (n = 8), and a co-infection of norovirus and astrovirus in 3. 5% (n = 2) of the samples. Rotavirus co-infection with another viral agent was identified in 14. 28% (n = 5) of positive samples. Conclusions: Viral gastroenteritis has been decreasing after the introduction of the rotavirus vaccine. However, the appearance of co-infections has significantly increased, as evidenced by the high prevalence of enteroVIRUSES among hospitalized children in Chihuahua, Mexico.